Pipestone National Monument, bordering the town of Pipestone in southwestern Minnesota, preserves and interprets the historic catlinite quarries which, for hundreds of years, served as the source of a soft red claystone that Native Americans carved into pipes and other objects. These famous quarries have often been described in travelers' accounts since 1832, when they were first known to have been visited by non-Native Americans (Prescott 1852; Parker 1966).

Almost as famous as the quarries are the petroglyphs carved into Sioux Quartzite outcrops near the quarry pits. Many of these petroglyphs were observed, commented on, and recorded at various times during the nineteenth century by visitors drawn to the nearby quarries. A large number originally were carved into the quartzite bedrock that underlies a glacially deposited group of large granite boulders called the Three Maidens. At two other locations within the Monument, Native American petroglyphs have been recorded within the past decade. It is possible, even likely, that additional petroglyphs remain undiscovered within the Monument's boundary.

Catlin's painting of Pipestone - Three Maidens are on the upper right.

The first eyewitness description of the Three Maidens was provided by the artist, George Catlin, who visited the quarries in 1836 as part of his self-imposed mission of portraying North American Indian cultures on canvas before those cultures disappeared forever. Catlin's famous view of the quarries shows the Three Maidens boulders off to one side, some distance from the quarries; however, the perspective between the quartzite ledge, the falls and creek, the quarries, and the boulders is distorted (Catlin 1973, 2:facing p. 165). Catlin observed that the Three Maidens boulders were held in high regard by Native Americans, "whose...veneration of them is such that not a spear of grass is broken or bent...within three or four rods of the group." He also stated that Native Americans regarded the Three Maidens as the guardian spirits of the quarries, and offered tobacco to them before engaging in quarrying (Catlin 1839:142; see also Catlin 1973, 2:202-203).

Catlin made only slight mention of the petroglyphs about the base of the Three Maidens boulders, by observing that "here are to be seen (and will continue to be seen for ages to come), the totems and arms of the different tribes, who have visited this place for ages past, deeply engraved on the quartz rocks, where they are to be recognized in a moment...by the passing traveller" (Catlin 1973, 2:167-168; emphasis in original). Catlin referred to the existence of "thousands of inscriptions and paintings," but this was surely a great exaggeration of their number.

Williams drawing

Though the Three Maidens petroglyphs were mentioned in descriptions of the quarries by early visitors, the first drawing of them was made in 1859 by a man named W.O. Williams, which was presented to Alfred Hill a few years later (Figure _; Minnesota Historical Society, albumen print, SD4P/r42). Williams' identity has not been established, but Alan Woolworth (letter to Thiessen, March 9, 1998) has speculated that he may have been a member of a party of land surveyors known to have worked in the vicinity of the quarries during that year.

It was not until the decade of the 1870s that some of the petroglyphs were individually recorded; in all, the Three Maidens petroglyphs were recorded by various parties a total of at least seven times.

Perley's Chart

The earliest of these recording episodes appears to have taken place in 1876 and resulted in an enigmatic diagram labeled "Perley's Chart" (Figure _), known only from a copy of a hand-drawn depiction of a circular arrangement of petroglyphs that has survived in the files of Pipestone National Monument. The author of the original "Perley's Chart" is not known with certainty, but probably was a man named George A. Perley who homesteaded near Flandreau, South Dakota in May of 1876 and later was active in state politics (Perley 1906:598-601; "George A. Perley Called by Death at Home Sunday," Flandreau Herald, September 27, 1933, p. 1; "Old Pioneer is Called Home," Moody County Enterprise, September 27, 1933, p. 1).

Though "Perley's Chart" appears crude in execution and conventionalized in its representation of petroglyphs in a uniform circle, it may represent the only known plan view of the in situ petroglyphs around the Three Maidens boulders before they were removed on quartzite slabs in 1888 or 1889. Several of the individual motives shown on "Perley's Chart" clearly are the same images documented in more detailed fashion by later recorders, including Winchell and Upham (1884), Lewis (in Winchell 1911), Holmes (1892a), and possibly Cronau (1890). "Perley's Chart" is of sufficient potential importance to eventually understanding the Three Maidens petroglyphs that it deserves further research into the circumstances of its creation.

Winchell's drawings

The Three Maidens petroglyphs were probably next recorded, in 1878 or somewhat earlier, when the Minnesota State Geologist, Newton H. Winchell, visited the quarries. Winchell's visit resulted in two publications ([Winchell] 1878; Winchell and Upham 1884) in which the petroglyphs were briefly described. The later of these, the 1884 report by Winchell and his assistant, Warren Upham, contains the first published depictions of individual Three Maidens glyphs. Forty glyphs are shown at one-quarter size in four plates in their report (Winchell and Upham 1884:Plates I, J, K, L; see also Woolworth 1983:15-18. Though Winchell's illustrations of the Three Maidens petroglyphs appear somewhat fanciful, a number of them can be correlated with more accurately drawn, later renditions, lending substantial credibility to Winchell's drawings.

Years later, after the Three Maidens petroglyphs were removed on slabs of quartzite taken up from their original location, a minor controversy occurred when a Smithsonian Institution researcher, William Henry Holmes, criticized Winchell's failure to record the spatial relationships of the individual glyphs to one another. Because the petroglyphs had since been removed from their original locations without careful recordation, Holmes maintained (Mallery 1893:88-89) that this potentially important relational information was lost forever:

The trouble with the figures copied and published by Prof. Winchell is that they are not arranged in the original order. It will now be impossible to correct this entirely, as most of the stones have been taken up and removed...The Winchell drawings were evidently drawn by eye and have a very large personal equation; besides, they are mixed up while appearing to be in some order...There can be little doubt that in the main this great group of pictures was arranged in definite order, agreeing with the arrangements of mythical personages and positions usual in the aboriginal ceremonials of the region. It is a great pity that this original order has been destroyed...

These remarks were originally stated in two letters written by Holmes (1892b, 1892c) to a Smithsonian colleague, Garrick Mallery. Mallery combined parts of the two letters and published the remarks in 1893.

In defense, Winchell later (1911:563-564) pointed to a statement in his 1884 article that "for the most part the figures are isolated," believing that this "relieves the onus of the complaint by Dr. W.H. Holmes."

Holmes, perhaps, had excessive expectations about the information that could be gleaned from the spatial interrelationships of in situ petroglyphs, and Winchell, possibly, did not appreciate the potential value of recording the in situ petroglyphs in relationship to one another when he had the opportunity. And, of course, "Perley's Chart," which does not seem to have been known to either of these men, may someday help to reconstruct the spatial interrelationships between glyphs, that Holmes considered to be so potentially important.

A German traveler in the United States, Rudolph Cronau, visited the catlinite quarries during the early 1880s and published drawings of 14 glyphs in an 1890 book about his travels (Cronau 1890). Although Cronau's depictions also appear fanciful and he may have embellished the diagrams of what he believed he saw on the quartzite, at least four or five of his glyphs appear to match glyphs recorded by later investigators, which lends a degree of credibility to Cronau's renditions in general. Cronau stated that he recorded "40 to 50" of the Three Maidens glyphs, so perhaps additional drawings are preserved in his personal papers, if indeed such exist.

The Three Maidens petroglyphs were also recorded by Philetus W. Norris and Walter James Hoffman, two Smithsonian Institution researchers who visited the quarries in 1882 and 1888, respectively (Norris 1883; Thomas 1894:42-44; Powell 1893:xiii). Unfortunately, neither Norris' nor Hoffman's tracings or drawings are known to exist.

The man who most comprehensively recorded the Three Maidens petroglyphs was Theodore H. Lewis. Lewis, however, did so in 1889, after the petroglyphs had been removed from their original location. His drawings of 79 individual motives, on 35 slabs of quartzite, were published in Newton Winchell's monumental 1911 compilation entitled, The Aborigines of Minnesota.

Just when the Three Maidens petroglyphs were removed from their original location is not known, but probably occurred in 1888 or 1889, according to a statement by the man who removed them, Leon H. Moore (receipt to Charles H. Bennett, August 25, 1902, copy on file, Pipestone County Historical Society, Pipestone, Minnesota). Moore removed the petroglyphs at the behest of Charles H. Bennett, one of the founders and leading citizens of the town of Pipestone. Ostensibly, they were removed out of concern that they were being defaced by names and other inscriptions being chiseled over the petroglyphs as the Pipestone region became populated, a sort of early misguided attempt at historic preservation (Dudzik 1995:102-103). Bennett kept his Three Maidens rock art "collection" in the sideyard of his home for many years, and even exhibited the slabs at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis in 1904, where they earned him a silver medal from the judging panel (Rose 1911:244; Winchell 1911:112). The proud Mr. Bennett had a series of 17 photographs taken of his prize-winning rock art collection. He provided a set of prints to the Minnesota Historical Society; the original glass negatives are presently housed at the Pipestone County Historical Society.

At his death in 1926, Bennett willed the petroglyph slabs to the Pipestone County Historical Society (will of Charles H. Bennett, May 19, 1926, on file with the Court Administrator, Pipestone County, Pipestone, Minnesota). Following this, they reposed at different times at several places in the community of Pipestone, being variously housed in the basement of the Pipestone County Courthouse and the Pipestone Public Library, as well as at two or three private residences. By 1946, they were given to the National Park Service for exhibit at Pipestone National Monument, and for a time they were stored outdoors on Monument land. In 1959 four slabs were incorporated into a roadside exhibit near the Three Maidens boulders, and 15 others were placed alongside a pathway near the Monument's visitor center, where they laid until October of 1997 when they were moved into the visitor center building for security and for eventual interpretation.

It is interesting to note that the stated total number of petroglyph slabs diminished through time. Their number is stated as 36 by Leon Moore, who removed them from their original location in 1888 or 1889 (receipt cited previously); as 35 in Lewis' 1889 notes (Minnesota Historical Society 1991:Reel 7); as 23 in a 1940 letter to the Regional Director of the National Park Service (letter from Albert F. Drysdale to National Park Service Regional Director, Omaha, Nebraska, February 2, 1940, copy on file at the Pipestone County Historical Society); and as 22 in two 1949 documents (letter to the files at Pipestone National Monument from Lyle K. Linch, [1949], copy on file, Pipestone County Historical Society; and Superintendent's Monthly Report, Pipestone National Monument, November 1, 1949, copy on file, Pipestone National Monument). Their number was again reported as 14 in 1949 (Beaubien 1949:11), and also in 1965 (Sigstad 1970:8). Nineteen slabs are now in the museum collection of Pipestone National Monument. Of these, 17 correlate with slabs described by Lewis. None of the missing slabs are known to exist elsewhere, despite the report that Newton H. Winchell took one to Minneapolis prior to 1892 (Holmes 1892c; Mallery 1893:89) and an unsubstantiated report that another slab exists in a museum in one of the prairie provinces of Canada (letter from Alan R. Woolworth to Thiessen, March 9, 1998). One of the slabs was inadvertently broken when the Three Maidens roadside exhibit was dismantled and is not viewable at the Monument except by special arrangement.

Do any in situ petroglyphs still exist in the bedrock that underlies the Three Maidens boulders? Although the area is now covered with a soil mantle that has been introduced to eliminate a water drainage problem and make the area more suitable for park purposes, William Henry Holmes' correspondence and notes suggest that this is likely.

Holmes probably observed some petroglyphs that were still in place around the Three Maidens. In a June 2, 1892 letter to Garrick Mallery, concerning the Three Maidens petroglyphs, Holmes (1892c) stated that "There are a few pieces still in place." The Three Maidens appear in 13 sketches in the field notebook he kept during his 1892 visit (Holmes 1892d), and individual petroglyphs or groups of petroglyphs appear in five sketches. Four of the latter appear to portray slabs on which several of the motives can be correlated with the earlier Lewis drawings, and one sketch appears to represent an in situ petroglyph. One of the petroglyph sketches (on notebook pages 8-9) bears the notation, "This group is on the south side near the S.E. bowlder." The notebook also contains further clues to the existence of in situ petroglyphs about the base of the Three Maidens. Two of the Three Maidens views (on notebook pages 17 and 22;depict human figures pointing to or looking at the bedrock beneath the huge boulders. Both of these sketches, plus two other views of the Three Maidens (on notebook pages 7 and 16), contain small "x" marks about the base of the boulders, which may represent Holmes' attempt to indicate the locations of in situ rock art. If his perspective on the Three Maidens can be re-established today, it may be possible to conduct limited excavation in the thin mantle of introduced soil that surrounds the boulders and confirm the presence of petroglyphs in these locations. By the same means, it may also be possible to match the existing rock art slabs in the Pipestone National Monument museum collection to their original positions about the Three Maidens (letter from Alan R. Woolworth to Thiessen, November 10, 1998). In 1965, archeologist John S. Sigstad planned just such an excavation, but that work was not carried out (Sigstad 1965:67-68).

Is there any information about how Native Americans regard the rock art at Pipestone National Monument? The Three Maidens petroglyphs were mentioned by three Yankton elders who gave depositions in 1927 in connection with the Yankton claim to the quarries which was then under litigation (U.S. Court of Claims 1927).

Julia Conger, a Yankton tribal member born in 1844, testified (U.S. Court of Claims 1927:157-158) that she had heard of the Three Maidens rock art from her grandmother:

...I have been to Sioux Falls, but never went to Pipestone Quarry. My grandmother told me that in olden times the Indians had that to worship and that they would make sacrifices when they went there. She said, "There is something there that you don't see, something there they pray to and make sacrifices to." I said, "When they go there what do they do there?" She says, "There is something there that they call `Twin Maidens.'" She said, "They make pictures on this rock. Nobody ever saw them with their eyes, but after it was done they could see marks, and they could hear them at night working on this rock, and if anybody went there the next day they could see the pictures on that rock of dogs, ponies, or whatever they had, their pictures would be marked there," and she said, "That is kind of a sacred place." I never went there myself.

Another deponent, Simon Antelope, a Yankton tribal member who was 79 years of age at the time, spoke of successive visits to the Three Maidens during which he may have witnessed the petroglyphs in situ, their subsequent defacement by vandals, and the aftermath of their removal:

...I first visited the Pipestone Quarry 52 years ago [i.e., ca. 1875) and the things I saw at that time were somewhere right near where they had the quarry. It is within a quarter of a mile of it. There were several stones that were standing up in the nature of hills. At night I heard noises over there and I could see sparks fly from these stones that I have just described. The following morning I visited these stones and saw what was there, and I found pictures on the stones that were chiseled on, good pictures of buffalo, deer, and other animals, and they were very well done, and there were pictures of Indian men and women, and the pictures were very well done. Upon another visit to the Pipestone Quarry I looked at these stones again, and in addition to the pictures that were on there there were characters made on the stone which appear to be some sort of writing or printing. I couldn't read it, but there was something there that wasn't the pictures or animals. The third visit I made there all these picture writings and things I have just spoken of had departed. Apparently some white people had removed them, taken them away.

Antelope believed his last visit to the quarries had taken place approximately 40 years previous, or about 1887, which correlates remarkably well with Leon Moore's statement of having removed the petroglyph slabs in 1888 or 1889 (U.S. Court of Claims 1927:169).

The final deponent who commented on the rock art was Many Dogs, a Yankton tribal member who was "about 67 years old" at the time (U.S. Court of Claims 1927:177):

I visited the Pipestone Quarry when I was about 13 years old [i.e., ca. 1873]...I saw large rocks there. There were markings on them, pictures of strange animals, and writings on the rocks.

From these depositions, it can be concluded that the Yanktons, who had a close association with the quarries during the nineteenth century, were aware of the petroglyphs but did not know who had made them or for what purpose.

During ethnographic research at Pipestone National Monument in 1995 and 1996 (Hughes and Stewart 1997), interviews were conducted with Native Americans who visited the Monument for ceremonial purposes or who possessed knowledge of the past use of Monument resources by Native Americans. Formal interviews were conducted with eight members of the Yankton Sioux, the Flandreau-Santee Sioux, and the Pipestone Dakota Community (Hughes and Stewart 1997:4-5). The latter group consists of Native Americans who have taken up residence in the Pipestone area for the purpose of quarrying catlinite and making pipes and other objects; its members are primarily from the Sisseton-Wahpeton Sioux, but Chippewa are also represented (Hughes 1995:41-48). Informal interviews were conducted with other Native Americans during the study as well.

During the formal interviews, questions were asked about the origin, purpose, and significance of the Three Maidens petroglyphs as well as the in situ Noble and Derby petroglyphs (Hughes and Stewart 1997:75-76). The results revealed little knowledge about the petroglyphs on the part of present-day Native Americans (Hughes and Stewart 1997:27-28):

The general consensus among informants, both formally interviewed and in casual conversation, is that the meaning of the petroglyphs is forgotten. Five informants who live in the area attempted to make a guess or inject a personal opinion about what the petroglyphs might have meant including winter counts, graffiti, personal markers, spiritual guides, a mark left by one or more spirits, and landmarks or directions on the prairie. Two other informants argued that the original placement or arrangement of the petroglyphs at the Three Maidens might have had meaning, either spiritual or mundane, and that the ceremonies traditionally held at the Three Maidens with the petroglyphs present may have had some special significance in relation to those petroglyphs. Others simply refused to guess whether or not there is or was any spiritual significance or traditional meaning to the petroglyphs.

The researchers went on to explain that the petroglyphs may have taken on new meaning to some of the Native Americans interviewed:

Some people have found significance in certain petroglyphs. Second-hand, or anecdotal information suggests that certain individuals may be able to "hear" the petroglyphs in a spiritual sense. One petroglyph was requested from the Park Service for use in the 1995 Sun Dance at Pipestone. The person requesting the petroglyph said it was "calling" to be there or that the "stones were crying." Another informant overheard a person who said a petroglyph was "speaking."

Interestingly, and perhaps coincidentally, a Native American tobacco tie offering was observed suspended from a small bush near the Noble petroglyph when it was recorded in the spring of 1994 (Richner 1994:3; Dudzik 1995:106). This association may simply be coincidental, however, as tobacco ties are a form of offering found often throughout the Monument's land (Hughes and Stewart 1997:42-48).

Only two examples of in situ rock art are known to exist at Pipestone National Monument. Both were recorded only within the past decade. During a 1994 archeological examination of a portion of the Monument land that was subjected to a prescribed grass burn, a single bird track petroglyph was observed atop the quartzite ledge (Figure _), the most prominent topographic feature within the Monument (Richner 1994:3). Subsequently called the Noble petroglyph, it is the only in situ Native American petroglyph known to exist on top of the ledge, despite some suggestion in the historical record that other glyphs may once have been observed there.

In 1992, the Monument's long-time chief of maintenance, Chuck Derby, noticed a number of subtle petroglyphs on a Sioux quartzite outcrop below the ledge, in an area he had passed by hundreds of times during his lifetime (Pipestone County Star, July 16, 1992). This was recorded in 1993 as the Derby petroglyph panel (Clark 1996:9-10, 27). It consists of a bird motif, a turtle, two feet, three bird tracks, and six "amorphous peckings" (Clark 1996:9.

In 1995, nearly 120 years after the first attempts to record it, the rock art at Pipestone National Monument received explicit acknowledgement from the archeological and historic preservation community when the Three Maidens petroglyphs, the Noble petroglyph, and the Derby panel were specifically included in a multiple property National Register of Historic Places listing focusing on the theme of American Indian rock art in Minnesota (National Register of Historic Places Multiple Property Documentation Form, March 18, 1995, on file, office of the Minnesota State Archeologist; see also Dudzik 1995).

References cited:

Beaubien, Paul L.
1949 Report of an Archeological Reconnaissance at Pipestone National Monument. Report on file, National Park Service, Midwest Archeological Center, Lincoln, Nebraska.

Catlin, George
1839 Account of a Journey to the Coteau des Prairies, with a description of the Red Pipe Stone quarry and granite bowlders found there; by Mr. George Catlin, in a letter to Dr. Charles T. Jackson. The American Journal of Science and Arts 38(1):138-146.

1973 Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of North American Indians. Two vols. Dover Publications, New York.

Clark, Caven P.
1996 Archeological Survey of a Controlled Burn at Pipestone National Monument, Pipestone County, Minnesota.

Cronau, Rudolf
1890 Im Wilden Westen. Oskar Löbbecke, Braunschweig.

Dudzik, Mark J.
1995 Visions in Stone: The Rock Art of Minnesota. The Minnesota Archaeologist 54:98-108. [Note: This was actually published in 1997.]

Holmes, William Henry
1892d Unpublished notebook of 1892 visit to the catlinite quarries. Smithsonian Institution, National Anthropological Archives, Collection 4698, Archeology, Minnesota. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

1892b Letter to Garrick Mallery, Pipestone, Minnesota, May 25, 1892. Smithsonian Institution, National Anthropological Archives, Collection 2372, Box 9, Minnesota.

1892c Letter to Garrick Mallery, Pipestone, Minnesota, June 2, 1892. Smithsonian Institution, National Anthropological Archives, Collection 2372, Box 9, Minnesota.

1892a Tracings of Three Maidens petroglyphs. Smithsonian Institution, National Anthropological Archives, Collection 2372, Box 9, Minnesota.

Hughes, David T.
1995 Perceptions of the Sacred: A Review of Selected Native American Groups and Their Relationships with the Catlinite Quarries. Report produced for the National Park Service, Midwest Region, Omaha, Nebraska.

Hughes, David T., and Alice J. Stewart
1997 Traditional Use of Pipestone National Monument: Ethnographic Resources of Pipestone National Monument. Report produced for the National Park Service, Midwest Region, Omaha, Nebraska.

Mallery, Garrick
1893 Picture-Writing of the American Indians. In the Tenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology...1888-'89, by J.W. Powell, pp. 3-807. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Minnesota Historical Society
1991 Northwestern Archaeological Survey. Field Notebooks and Related Volumes, Pre-1880, 1880-1895. Minnesota Historical Society Microfilm Publication. St. Paul.

Norris, Philetus W.
1883 Report of Ethnological Researches, in the Mississippi Valley Duriung 1882 and January 1883. Smithsonian Institution, National Anthropological Archives, Collection 2400, Box 3, Minnesota Archeology file.

Parker, Donald Dean (editor)
1966 The Recollections of Philander Prescott, Frontiersman of the Old Northwest, 1819-1862. University of Nebraska Press.

Perley, M.V.B. (compiler)
1906 History and Genealogy of the Perley Family. Published by the compiler, Salem, Massachusetts.

Powell, J.W.
1893 Report of the Director. In Tenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology...1888-'89, pp. iii-xxx. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Prescott, Philander
1852 Contributions to the History, Customs, and Opinions of the Dacota Tribe. In Information Respecting the History, Condition and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, compiled by Henry R. Schoolcraft, Part II, pp. 168-199. Lippincott, Grambo & Company, Philadelphia.

Richner, Jeffrey J.
1994 Memorandum to Chief, Midwest Archeological Center, June 3, 1994. Subject: Trip Report, Pipestone National Monument. On file, Midwest Archeological Center, Lincoln, Nebraska.

Rose, Arthur P.
1911 An Illustrated History of the Counties of Rock and Pipestone, Minnesota. Northern History Publishing Company, Luverne, Minnesota. Reprinted ca. 1980 through cooperation of the Rock and Pipestone County Historical Societies.

Sigstad, John S.
1965 Field Notebook. On file, Accession No. ___, Midwest Archeological Center, Lincoln, Nebraska.

1970 A Report of the Archeological Investigations, Pipestone National Monument, 1965 and 1966. Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society 17.

Thomas, Cyrus
1894 Report on the Mound Explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology. In Twelfth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology...1890-'91, by J. W. Powell, pp. 3-730. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

U.S. Court of Claims
1927 The Yankton Sioux v. the United States. No. 4-456. Evidence for Plaintiff. Copy on file, Pipestone National Monument.

[Winchell, N.H.]
1878 The Geology of Rock and Pipestone Counties. In The Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota, The Sixth Annual Report for the Year 1877, pp. 93-111. Submitted to the President of the University of Minnesota, May 25, 1878. Johnson, Smith & Harrison, Minneapolis.

Winchell, N.H.
1911 The Aborigines of Minnesota. Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul.

Winchell, N.H., and Warren Upham
1884 The Geology of Pipestone and Rock Counties. In "The Geology of Minnesota. Vol. I of the Final Report," by N.H. Winchell and Warren Upham, pp. 533-561. Johnson, Smith & Harrison, Minneapolis.

Woolworth, Alan R., compiler
1983 The Red Pipestone Quarry of Minnesota: Archaeological and Historical Reports. The Minnesota Archaeologist, Vol. 42, Nos. 1 and 2.

Note: The author expresses gratitude to the following individuals for providing information useful to this study: Alan R. Woolworth, Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul; Douglas D. Scott, National Park Service, Midwest Archeological Center, Lincoln, Nebraska; Don Stevens, National Park Service, Midwest Support Office, Omaha, Nebraska; Betty McSwain, formerly of the National Park Service, Pipestone National Monument; and Roberta W. Williamson, Moody County Historical Society, Flandreau, South Dakota.

Thomas D. Thiessen

National Park Service Midwest Archeological Center Lincoln, Nebraska

Presented at the International Rock Art Congress in Ripon, Wisconsin, May 27, 1999.

Copyright ©1999 Thomas D. Theissen